Vienna: Lichtzeichen testament to Jewish presence
Above/featured: Lichtzeichen number 10 (Stumperschul) in the city’s 6th district. Photo, 28 May 2022.
From a distance, the light seems suspended in mid-air.
Closing the distance widens my realization: it’s an illuminated sculpture that has a curved warped shape on top. That’s also when understanding narrows into sharp focus when I stand directly underneath: the shape “straightens” out, revealing itself as a Star of David.
Lichtzeichen Wien (LZ) consists of 26 structures in the Vienna region, marking former locations of synagogues, schools, temples, and prayer rooms destroyed by the Nazis in the pogrom of November 1938. During the night of 9–10 November 1938, the Nazi regime organized and carried out a systematic attack against the Jewish population in Germany and Austria. The rampage in Vienna continued for several days; most of the city’s synagogues, temples, and prayer-halls were destroyed.
Launched by the Jewish Museum Vienna and Austrian artist Brigitte Kowanz, an urban memorial project by joint collaboration of the Jewish Museum Vienna and the University of Applied Arts Vienna consists of identical columns, designed by artist Lukas Kaufmann. The commemorative project is called “Ot” (אות), which means “symbol” in Hebrew. Each “light column” sculpture stands about 5-metres high with a star of David, and includes the name of the former Jewish structure and an accompanying QR-code. Official unveiling of the memorial project occurred in 2018 on the 80th anniversary of the 1938 pogrom.
I visited and photographed all 26 Lichtzeichen locations in Vienna over a period of three summers in 2022, 2023, and 2024.
Light memorial columns (district # in Vienna)
- Prototype, Jüdisches Museum Wien (1.)
- LZ1: Leopoldstädter Tempel (2.)
- LZ2: Türkischer Tempel (2.)
- LZ3: Polnische Schul (2.)
- LZ4: Schiffschul (2.)
- LZ5: Pazmanitentempel (2.)
- LZ6: Talmud Tora Schul (2.)
- LZ7: Vereinssynagoge (3.)
- LZ8: Jubiläumstempel (5.)
- LZ9: Schmalzhoftempel (6.)
- LZ10: Stumperschul (6.)
- LZ11: Neudegger Tempel (8.)
- LZ12: Müllnertempel (9.)
- LZ13: Spitalssynagoge (9.)
- LZ14: Humboldttempel (10.)
- LZ15: Simmeringer Tempel (11.)
- LZ16: Neue Welt Tempel (13.)
- LZ17: Storchenschul (15.)
- LZ18: Turnertempel (15.)
- LZ19: Hubertempel (16.)
- LZ20: Währinger Tempel (18.)
- LZ21: Dollinertempel (19.)
- LZ22: Brigittenauer Tempel (20.)
- LZ23: Kaschlschul (20.)
- LZ24: Floridsdorfer Tempel (21.)
- LZ25: Atzgersdorfer Tempel (23.)
- LZ26: Wiener Neustadt
- Sources
Jüdisches Museum Wien (1.)
• Jewish Museum Vienna: Dorotheergasse 11.
• Wiener Linien: U-Bahn U1 or U3, to station Stephansplatz.

Permanent exhibition: display for commemorative project “Ot” (אות, “symbol”). Photo, 19 May 2022.

In the museum’s permanent exhibition is this prototype “Star of David”, photographed from below. One of Theodor Herzl’s bicycles appears in the background at right-centre. Photo, 19 May 2022.
LZ1: Leopoldstädter Tempel (2.)
• Designed by Ludwig von Förster, German-born architect in Vienna.
• Inauguration 1858, destroyed 1938.
• Adolf Jellinek, rabbi in Leopoldstadt from 1857–1865, after which he became the city’s chief rabbi at the Stadttempel in the city centre. He is buried in the Old Jewish Cemetery section of Vienna’s central cemetery.
• Lichtzeichen no. 1: Tempelgasse 3.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U1, to station Nestroyplatz.

The “light column” at left is dwarfed by 4 white columns. Designed by architect Martin Kohlbauer and unveiled in 1998, the installation “Zeichen, Symbol, Zitat” consists of 4 pillars standing 24 to 28 metres high, commemorating the location and height of the former great temple. Photo, 22 May 2022.

Outdoor display about the history of the Great Temple in Leopoldstadt. Photo, 22 May 2022.

Light column number 1. Photo, 21 Jun 2024.
LZ2: Türkischer Tempel (2.)
• Inauguration 1887, destroyed 1938.
• Built by maternal grandfather of Jewish writer Veza Canetti; the temple is also where she and Elias Canetti had their wedding ceremony.
• Lichtzeichen no. 2: Zirkusgasse 22.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U1, to station Nestroyplatz.

Former Turkish Temple with 2 memorial plaques (Gedenktafeln) appear on the adjacent wall. Photo, 22 May 2022.

The former Turkish Temple of the city’s Sephardic community. Photo, 22 May 2022.

“Here stood the Turkish Temple, the Sephardic community’s synagogue, which was built 1875 to 1877 by architect Hugo van Wiedenfeld. Destroyed by Nazis in the pogrom on 10 November 1938.” Photo, 22 May 2022.

Light column number 2. Photo, 21 Jun 2024.
LZ3: Polnische Schul (2.)
• Inauguration 1893, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 3: Leopoldsgasse 29.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U2, to station Taborstrasse.

Former location of the Polnische Schul (synagogue for the Polish Jewish community). Photo, 27 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “At this location stood the 1893 ‘Polish synagogue’ designed by architect Wilhelm Stiassny. Destroyed by Nazis in the pogrom of 10 November 1938.” Photo, 27 May 2023.

Light column number 3. Photo, 27 May 2023.
LZ4: Schiffschul (2.)
• Inauguration 1864, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 4: Grosse Schiffgasse 8.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U2, to Schottering or Taborstrasse; U-Bahn U4, to Schottenring.

Schiffschul: note the security booth and security camera at left. A memorial plaque is next to the building’s main entrance. Photo, 27 May 2023.

Memorial plaque: “Path of Remembrance. In memory of the members of the Orthodox Jewish community; most of whom were deported and murdered.” Photo, 27 May 2023.

Light column number 4. Photo, 27 May 2023.
LZ5: Pazmanitentempel (2.)
• Inauguration 1913, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 5: Pazmanitengasse 6.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U1 or U2, to station Praterstern.

Location of former Pazmanitentempel: light column, memorial plaque (Gedenktafel). Photo, 27 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “Here at this location stood the former Pazmaniten Temple which was destroyed by the Nazis in the pogrom of 10 November 1938. Israeli Community of Vienna.” Photo, 27 May 2023.

Light column number 5. Photo, 27 May 2023.
LZ6: Talmud Tora Schul (2.)
• Inauguration 1906, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 6: Malzgasse 16.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U2, to station Taborstrasse.

The star of David, from below. Photo, 31 May 2022.

Light column number 6. Photo, 31 May 2022.

Malzgasse 14–16, street address for present-day Jewish school. Photo, 21 Jun 2024.
LZ7: Vereinssynagoge (3.)
• Inauguration 1870, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 7: Untere Viaduktgasse 13.
• Public transport: Tram 1 or O, to stop Radetzkyplatz.

Location of former Vereinssynagoge. Photo, 13 May 2023.

Former Vereinssynagoge in the 3rd district. Photo, 13 May 2023.

Light column number 7. Photo, 13 May 2023.

Memorial stone in the pavement near the building’s front entrance. Steine des Gedenkens in 1030 Wien: “Im Hof dieses Hauses befand sich die Synagoge des 1870 gegründeten Tempelvereins: Beth Hachneseth. Sie wurde im November 1938 vom NS-Pöbel geplündert.” (Within this building’s courtyard stood the Beth Hachneseth synagogue of the Temple Association, founded in 1870. The synagogue was looted by Nazi mobs during the November 1938 pogrom.) Photo, 13 May 2023.
LZ8: Jubiläumstempel (5.)
• Inauguration 1908, destroyed 1938; additional description by oldnew.vienna (in German).
• Lichtzeichen no. 8: Siebenbrunnengasse 1A.
• Public transport: Tram 1, 62, or WLB Badner Bahn; to stop Johann-Strauss-Gasse.

Former location of the Jubiläumstempel. Photo, 23 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Erinnerungstafel): Designed by architect Jakob Gartner, a synagogue built between 1908 and 1910 stood in the adjacent property. Destroyed in the Nazi pogrom on 10 November 1938.” Photo, 23 May 2023.

Light column number 8. Photo, 23 May 2023.

Light column from below. Photo, 23 May 2023.

Jubiläumstempel, from the corner of Siebenbrunnengasse and Nikolsdorfer Gasse. Photo, 23 May 2023.

Gedenktafel (memorial display): “Nur wer einen Standpunkt einnimmt, kann die Geschichte erkennen. Der früher hier befindliche Kaiser-Franz-Joseph-Regierungsjubiläums-Tempel wurde von dem Architekten Jakob Gartner entworfen, von 1908 bis 1910 erbaut un im Novemberpogrom 1938 zerstört.” (Only those who take a stand can acknowledge the story. Near this spot was the Emperor Franz Joseph Jubilee Temple, built between 1908 and 1910 designed by architect Jakob Gartner; destroyed in the November pogrom of 1938.) Photo, 23 May 2023.
LZ9: Schmalzhoftempel (6.)
• Inauguration 1884, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 9: Schmalzhofgasse 3.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U3, to station Zieglergasse.

Former location of the Schmalzhoftempel. Photo, 28 May 2022

Post-dusk illumination. Photo, 28 May 2022.

Light column number 9. Photo, 28 May 2022.
LZ10: Stumperschul (6.)
• Inauguration 1864, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 10: Stumpergasse 42.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U3, to station Zieglergasse.

Former location of the Stumperschul. Photo, 28 May 2022.

Light column number 10. Photo, 28 May 2022.
LZ11: Neudegger Tempel (8.)
• Inauguration 1903, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 11: Neudeggergasse 12.
• Public transport: Tram 46, to stop Strozzigasse.

Facing north on Neudeggergasse: former location of Neudegger Tempel with memorial (Denkmal), light column (Lichtzeichen), Gedenktafeln (memorial plaques). Photo, 24 May 2023.

Description associated with the memorial (Denkmal). Photo, 24 May 2023.

Light column number 11. Photo, 24 May 2023.

Memorial plaques (Gedenktafeln). “Here stood a synagogue built around 1903 to the designs by architect Max Fleischer; destroyed in the Nazi pogrom on 10 November 1938. Lost neighbourhood memorial project, synagogue on Neudeggergasse: 1 October – 9 November 1998. The synagogue facade was reproduced to its original size and temporarily installed, thanks to an initiative brought upon by a group of neighbours. Jewish neighbours from the United States, Israel, Argentina, and Vienna: once expelled and found again.” Photo, 24 May 2023.
LZ12: Müllnertempel (9.)
• Inauguration 1889, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 12: Müllnergasse 21.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U4, to station Rossauer Lände.

Facing northeast on Müllnergasse: light column (Lichtzeichen) and memorial plaque (Gedenktafel) for Müllnertempel. Photo, 24 May 2023.

Light column number 12. Photo, 24 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “Here stood an 1889 synagogue designed by architect Max Fleischer. Destroyed by Nazis in the pogrom on 10 November 1938.” Photo, 24 May 2023.
LZ13: Spitalssynagoge (9.)
• Inauguration 1903, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 13: Univeristät Wien Campus, Hof 6, Spitalgasse 2.
• Public transport: Tram 5, 33, 43, or 44; to stop Lange Gasse.

Former location of the Spitalssynagoge. At right is the memorial “DENK-MAL Marpe Lanefesch” in the former Jewish prayer house. Photo, 30 May 2022.

Light column number 13. Photo, 30 May 2022.
LZ14: Humboldttempel (10.)
• Inauguration 1896, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 14: Humboldtgasse 27.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U1, to station Keplerplatz.

Former location of Humboldttempel at Humboldtplatz: memorial plaque (Gedenktafel), light column, and memorial sculpture (Denkmal) across the street at Humboldtpark. In the background to the northeast is the (A1 Telekom) telecommunications tower Funkturm Arsenal. Photo, 26 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “Here once stood a synagogue, built in 1895–1896 by Jakob Gartner, with its domed structure a distinct feature of the cityscape. The temple erected by the Favoriten Temple Association was destroyed by the Nazis in the pogrom from 9 to 10 November 1938 and demolished shortly thereafter. More than 65-thousand Austrian Jews fell victim to racial fanaticism until 1945.” Photo, 26 May 2023.

Light column number 14. Photo, 26 May 2023.

At Humboldtplatz, facing southwest to the Volksschule at Keplerplatz in the background. The light column for Humboldttempel is in the foreground at right-centre. Photo, 26 May 2023.

Light column and a memorial sculpture across the street. Photo, 23 May 2023.

Memorial in front of Humboldtpark. Photo, 23 May 2023.
LZ15: Simmeringer Tempel (11.)
• Inauguration 1899, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 15: Braunhubergasse 7.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U3, to Simmering.

Former location of the Simmeringer Tempel. Photo, 22 May 2023.

Light column number 15. Photo, 22 May 2023.
LZ16: Neue Welt Tempel (13.)
• Inauguration 1929, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 16: Eitelbergergasse 22.
• Public transport: Tram 10, to stop Wenzgasse.

Former location of the Neue Welt Tempel: memorial plaque (Gedenktafel), memorial (Denkmal), light column. Photo, 19 May 2023.

Light column number 16. Photo, 19 May 2023.

Memorial (Denkmal). Photo, 19 May 2023.

Memorial (Denkmal): “Only those who take a stand can see the story. The Hietzing synagogue was designed by architect Arthur Grünberger, built in 1928, and destroyed in the November 1938 pogrom.” Photo, 19 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “Here at this location in 1926 was a synagogue designed by architects Arthur Grünberger and Adolf Jelletz. Destroyed by the Nazis in the pogrom on 10 November 1938.” Photo, 19 May 2023.
LZ17: Storchenschul (15.)
• Inauguration 1934, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 17: Storchengasse 21.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U4 or U6, to station Längenfeldgasse.

Former location of Storchenschul: light column, memorial plaque. Photo, 21 May 2023.

Light column number 17. Photo, 21 May 2023.

Memorial plaque unveiled in 1961: “At this location for 60 years was the Israel Temple Association’s Storchenschul temple until its violent destruction in 1938. Emunath Awoth for city districts 12-14.” Photo, 21 May 2023.
LZ18: Turnertempel (15.)
• Inauguration 1872, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 18: Turnergasse 22 (Moshe-Jahoda-Platz).
• Public transport: U-Bahn U6, to Gumpendorfer Strasse.

Former location of the Turnertempel: light column, memorial project installation by KÖR Wien. Photo, 17 Jun 2024.

Light column number 18. Photo, 21 May 2023.

Turnertempel Erinnerungsort (place of remembrance): Moshe-Jahoda-Platz. Photo, 17 Jun 2024.

Turnertempel Erinnerungsort (place of remembrance): Moshe-Jahoda-Platz; note on the far wall a display, which is shown below. Photo, 17 Jun 2024.

Turnertempel installation: Place of remembrance, search for a reflective archaeology (KÖR Wien). Description in German, Hebrew, English, Turkish, and Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian. Photo, 21 May 2023.

A place of remembrance, in German and Hebrew. Photo, 21 May 2023.

A place of remembrance, in English and Turkish. Photo, 21 May 2023.

A place of remembrance, in (Turkish and) Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian for the district’s significant proportion of immigrant residents. Photo, 21 May 2023.

Tiled mosaic in the pavement at Moshe-Jahoda-Platz. Photo, 17 Jun 2024 (X70).

Another mosaic: more fruit. Photo, 17 Jun 2024 (X70).
LZ19: Hubertempel (16.)
• Inauguration 1886, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 19: Hubergasse 8.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U6, to Josefstädter Straße.

Hubertempel: light column (Lichtzeichen) and memorial plaque (Gedenktafel). Photo, 6 Jun 2023.

Light column number 19. Photo, 6 Jun 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “This is the former location of Ludwig Tischler’s synagogue built 1885–1886. During the night of 9–10 November 1938, the Nazi regime organized a nationwide pogrom against the Jewish population. The rampage in Vienna lasted several days; nearly all of the city’s synagogues and prayer-halls were destroyed, including the temple here which remained in ruins until 1970. Out of 200-thousand Austrians classified as Jewish by the Nazi’s Nuremberg decrees, more than 65-thousand would fall victim in the Shoah/Holocaust.” Photo, 6 Jun 2023.
LZ20: Währinger Tempel (18.)
• Inauguration 1889, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 20: Schopenhauerstrasse 39.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U6, to station Michelbeuern AKH.

Former location of the Währinger Tempel: memorial plaque (Gedenktafel), light column (LZ20). Photo, 21 May 2022.

Light column number 20. Photo, 21 May 2022.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “Standing within the courtyard of the building here was a synagogue built in 1890 by architect Jakob Modern. Destroyed by the Nazis during the pogrom on 10 November 1938.” Photo, 21 May 2022.
LZ21: Dollinertempel (19.)
• Inauguration 1907, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 21: Dollinergasse 3.
• Public transport: Tram 37, to stop Döblinger Hauptstrasse/Gatterburggasse.

Former location of the Dollinertempel: memorial stone (Gedenkstein), light column. Photo, 20 May 2023.

Light column number 21. Photo, 20 May 2023.

Memorial stone (Gedenkstein). Photo, 20 May 2023.

Memorial stone (Gedenkstein): “At this location was a synagogue built in 1907 and designed by architect Julius Wohlmuth. The temple suffered heavy damage and subsequent destruction in the Nazi pogrom on 10 November 1938.” Photo, 20 May 2023.
LZ22: Brigittenauer Tempel (20.)
• Inauguration 1900, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 22: Kluckygasse 11.
• Public transport: Tram 5, 31, or 33; to stop Klosterneuburgerstrasse/Wallensteinstrasse.

Former location of the Brigittenau Temple; 2 memorial plaques (Gedenktafeln). Photo, 27 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “Here stood in 1900 a synagogue designed by architect Jakob Gartner and destroyed by the Nazis during the pogrom on 10 November 1938.” Photo, 27 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): how the Brigttenau Temple appeared before its destruction in 1938. Photo, 27 May 2023.

Light column number 22. Photo, 27 May 2023.
LZ23: Kaschlschul (20.)
• Inauguration 1932, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 23: Kaschlgasse 4.
• Public transport: Tram 5 or 33; to stop Wallensteinplatz.

Location of former Kaschlschul. A memorial plaque (Gedenktafel) appears on the wall next to the building entrance at Kaschlgasse 4. Photo, 27 May 2023.

Light column number 23. Photo, 27 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel) on the wall next to the building entrance at Kaschlgasse 4: “In commemoration of the synagogue, which stood here at this location from 1932 to the November Pogrom in 1938. In memory of the Jews here in Brigittenau who once attended this synagogue and who were deported and murdered by Nazis.” Photo, 27 May 2023.
LZ24: Floridsdorfer Tempel (21.)
• Inauguration 1877, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 24: Freytaggasse 25.
• Public transport: U-Bahn U6, to station Floridsdorf.

Former location of Floridsdorfer Tempel: light column (Lichtzeichen) and memorial plaque (Gedenktafel). Photo, 31 May 2023.

I was surprised to find the artificial illumination remained activated in broad daylight. Photo, 31 May 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “This is the location of Andreas Streit’s synagogue built 1875–1877. The Nazi organized pogrom directed against the Jewish population during the night of 9–10 November 1938 resulted in the destruction of nearly all of the city’s synagogues, temples, and prayer halls. The building remnant was seized for use as warehouse before its complete destruction in 1945 from bombing. Over 65-thousand Austrian Jews fell victim in the Shoah/Holocaust.” Photo, 31 May 2023.

Light column number 24. Photo, 31 May 2023.
LZ25: Atzgersdorfer Tempel (23.)
• Inauguration 1900, destroyed 1938.
• Lichtzeichen no. 25: Dirmhirngasse 114.
• Public transport: S-Bahn S2, S3, S4; to station Liesing.

Former location of Atzgersdorfer Tempel: light column (Lichtzeichen) and memorial plaque (Gedenktafel). Photo, 7 Jun 2023.

Light column number 25. Photo, 7 Jun 2023.

A memorial plaque is installed behind the fence in the works yard for Wiener Netz. Photo, 7 Jun 2023.

Memorial plaque (Gedenktafel): “Here at this location stood the synagogue for Atzgersdorf and Liesing which was destroyed during the pogrom on 10 November 1938 by Nazis and their collaborators. NEVER FORGET! Liesing district council.” Photo, 7 Jun 2023.
LZ26: Wiener Neustadt
• Built 1902, damaged 1938, demolished 1952.
• Lichtzeichen no. 26: Baumkirchnerring 4, in Wiener Neustadt.
• Public transport: S-Bahn S3, S4, S60; regional & regional-express trains to Wiener Neustadt train station, about 50 km south from Vienna.

Wiener Neustadt: former synagogue. Photo, 17 Jun 2024.

“Im Jahre 1902 errichtete die israelitische Kultusgemeinde Wiener Neustadt an dieser Stelle nach Planen des Wiener Architekten Wilhelm Stiassny eine repräsentative Synagoge in maurischen Stil. Ähnlich wie viele andere Synagogen des Landes ist auch die Wiener Neustädter Synagoge an 9. November 1938 von National Sozialisten devastiert und entweiht worden. Durch die darauffolgende gewaltsane (sic) Vertreibung der Juden aus der Stadt hörte die israelitische Kultusgemeinde Wiener Neustadt zu bestehen auf. Nach Ende des zweiten Weltkrieges wurde die beschädigte ehemalige Synagoge abgetragen.” (In 1902, the Jewish community of Wiener Neustadt built at this location a representative synagogue in the Moorish style, based on plans by Viennese architect Wilhelm Stiassny. Like many other synagogues in the country, the Wiener Neustadt synagogue was devastated and desecrated by the National Socialists during the Pogrom of 9–10 November 1938. The Jewish community of Wiener Neustadt ceased to exist following the violent expulsion of Jews from the city. The damaged former synagogue was torn down completely in 1952.) Photo, 17 Jun 2024.

Light column number 26. Photo, 17 Jun 2024.
Sources
• Kessler, S.J., “Translating Judaism for Modernity: Adolf Jellinek in Leopoldstadt, 1857–1865“, in JBDI / DIYB: Simon Dubnow Institute Yearbook, vol. 14, pp.393–422, 2015. Available online at academia.edu: <https://www.academia.edu/19105067/Translating_Judaism_for_Modernity_Adolf_Jellinek_in_Leopoldstadt_1857_1865> [accessed Aug 2023].
• Preece, J., The Rediscovered Writings of Veza Canetti: Out of the Shadows of a Husband, p. 15 (Rochester: Camden House, 2007).
• Silverman, L., Becoming Austrians: Jews and Culture between the World Wars”, chapter 3 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). Available online at Oxford Academic: <https://academic.oup.com/book/25726> [accessed Aug 2023].
I made all photos above with a Fujifilm X70 fixed-lens prime in 2022, 2023, and 2024. I created and completed this research project independent of external request or sponsorship. This post appears on Fotoeins Fotografie at fotoeins DOT com as https://wp.me/p1BIdT-nmU.
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